Design and implementation of a universal converter for microgrid applications using approximate dynamic programming and artificial neural networks | Scientific Reports

Oct 14, 2024

Scientific Reports volume 14, Article number: 20899 (2024) Cite this article

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This paper introduces a novel design for a universal DC-DC and DC-AC converter tailored for DC/AC microgrid applications using Approximate Dynamic Programming and Artificial Neural Networks (ADP-ANN). The proposed converter is engineered to operate efficiently with both low-power battery and single-phase AC supply, utilizing identical side terminals and switches for both chopper and inverter configurations. This innovation reduces component redundancy and enhances operational versatility. The converter's design emphasizes minimal switch usage while ensuring efficient conversion to meet diverse load requirements from battery or AC sources. A conceptual example illustrates the design's principles, and comprehensive analyses compare the converter's performance across various operational modes. A test bench model, rated at 3000W, demonstrates the converter's efficacy in all five operational modes with AC/DC inputs. Experimental results confirm the system's robustness and adaptability, leveraging ADP-ANN for optimal performance. The paper concludes by outlining potential applications, including microgrids, electric vehicles, and renewable energy systems, highlighting the converter's key advantages such as reduced complexity, increased efficiency, and broad applicability.

The increasing demand for energy efficiency, renewable energy integration, and smart grid applications has driven significant advancements in power electronics, particularly in the development of DC-DC converters and their integration into microgrids1,2. These converters are critical in managing the power flow between different energy sources, storage systems, and loads, enabling efficient energy conversion and distribution in both DC and AC microgrids3,4. The complexity of modern energy systems necessitates innovative solutions that can address challenges related to efficiency, reliability, and scalability. This paper explores recent developments in DC-DC converters, focusing on their role in enhancing the performance of microgrids and renewable energy systems5,6. One of the key areas of research in power electronics is the development of high-frequency isolated DC-AC converters, which are essential for applications requiring galvanic isolation between input and output stages7,8. Wang et al.9 proposed a three-phase single-stage three-port high-frequency isolated DC-AC converter that addresses the need for efficient energy conversion in multi-port applications. This converter integrates the functionalities of DC-AC conversion and power management in a single stage, significantly reducing the overall system complexity and improving conversion efficiency. Another significant contribution to the field is the feasibility study of three-phase modular converters for dual-purpose applications in DC and AC microgrids. Roncero-Clemente et al.10 explored the potential of these converters to operate in both DC and AC modes, providing a flexible solution for microgrids that require bidirectional power flow. The modular design of these converters allows for scalability and redundancy, making them suitable for various microgrid configurations. The integration of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, into microgrids has also led to the development of novel converter topologies that can efficiently manage power from these intermittent sources. Husev et al.11 introduced a solar converter with universal applicability for both DC and AC microgrids. This converter's ability to adapt to different grid configurations and energy sources makes it a versatile solution for renewable energy integration. Hybrid connected unified power quality conditioners (UPQC) have emerged as a promising solution for improving power quality in distributed generation systems. Wang et al.12 developed a hybrid connected UPQC that integrates distributed generation with reduced power capacity and enhanced conversion efficiency. This approach not only improves power quality but also optimizes the utilization of distributed energy resources. The integration of energy storage systems into microgrids is another critical area of research. Zheng et al.13 proposed a current-source solid-state DC transformer that integrates low-voltage DC (LVDC) microgrids, energy storage, and renewable energy into a medium-voltage DC (MVDC) grid. This innovative design allows for efficient power conversion and distribution in microgrids, enhancing the overall system reliability and efficiency. In the context of DC wind farm collection systems, Wang et al.14 introduced a hybrid four-quadrant DC-DC converter that addresses the challenges of power collection and distribution in DC wind farms. This converter's ability to operate in all four quadrants of the power plane makes it suitable for managing power flow in complex wind energy systems. The development of multiple input supply-based modified SEPIC DC-DC converters has also gained attention for their ability to manage power in DC microgrids efficiently. Reddy et al.15 proposed a modified SEPIC converter that can handle multiple input supplies, making it an ideal solution for microgrids with diverse energy sources. This converter's design allows for seamless integration of renewable energy sources and storage systems, enhancing the overall efficiency of the microgrid. High step-up DC-DC converters are essential for applications requiring significant voltage conversion ratios. Song et al.16 developed a high step-up DC-DC converter with multiplier voltage cells, which enables efficient voltage conversion in renewable energy systems. This converter's design minimizes the stress on components, improving the overall reliability and lifespan of the system. In the realm of rural PV microgrid applications, Aliaga et al.17 implemented an exact linearization technique for modeling and controlling DC-DC converters. This approach enhances the accuracy and stability of the converters, making them more reliable for use in rural electrification projects. The concept of soft switching in four-quadrant power converters has been revisited by Divan et al.18, who argued for its importance in improving the efficiency and reliability of power converters. Soft switching techniques reduce the switching losses in converters, making them more suitable for high-frequency applications in modern power systems. The integration of energy storage systems (ESS) into low-voltage grids has been facilitated by advancements in converter technology. Zhou et al.19 introduced a model predictive power control technique for grid-connected quasi-single-stage converters, which enhances the efficiency of ESS integration into low-voltage grids. This technique ensures optimal power flow between the grid and the ESS, improving the overall efficiency of the system. Cooperative control techniques for hybrid AC/DC smart microgrid converters have also been explored to optimize power management in microgrids. Jasim et al.20 proposed a novel cooperative control technique that enhances the performance of hybrid microgrids by coordinating the operation of AC and DC converters. This approach improves the stability and efficiency of microgrids, making them more resilient to fluctuations in energy supply and demand. Nonlinear control techniques have also been applied to power conversion units in islanded microgrids. Azimi and Lotfifard21 developed a nonlinear controller using interconnection and damping assignment tracking control, which enhances the stability and performance of islanded microgrids. This controller design is particularly useful for maintaining stable operation in microgrids with varying load conditions. The demand for high-efficiency DC-DC converters for sustainable energy applications has led to the development of enhanced step-up converters. Van and Le22 introduced an enhanced step-up DC-DC converter designed for next-generation sustainable energy applications. This converter's design focuses on maximizing efficiency and minimizing losses, making it suitable for use in renewable energy systems. High-voltage DC-DC converters have been further optimized for efficiency through the use of adaptive frequency conversion modulation. Zheng et al.23 developed a high-voltage DC-DC converter that adapts its switching frequency based on the load conditions, improving the overall efficiency of the converter. This technique is particularly beneficial for applications requiring high-voltage conversion with minimal losses. In the context of electric vehicles (EVs), the integration of DC-DC converters into range extender units has been explored to enhance the performance and range of EVs. Götz et al.24 analyzed the control parameters of a switched reluctance motor (SRM) inverter with an integrated DC-DC converter, providing insights into the optimization of power conversion in EVs. Soft-switching techniques for various types of power converters have been extensively reviewed by Mohammed and Jung25. Their review highlights the importance of soft-switching techniques in reducing losses and improving the efficiency of DC-DC, DC-AC, AC-DC, and AC-AC power converters. Finally, the application of deep learning methods to estimate DC capacitor parameters in three-phase DC/AC converters has been explored by Park and Kwak26. Their research demonstrates the potential of deep learning techniques to enhance the accuracy and reliability of parameter estimation in power converters. The integration of efficient control strategies in microgrid systems is crucial for enhancing energy management and stability. Gundabathini and Pindoriya27 proposed an improved control strategy for bidirectional single-phase AC-DC converters in hybrid AC/DC microgrids, emphasizing the importance of seamless power flow between AC and DC systems. Similarly, Li et al.28 explored control strategies for DC microgrids with distributed energy storage, highlighting the role of advanced control techniques in optimizing energy storage utilization and ensuring reliable power distribution in modern microgrids. These studies underscore the significance of innovative control methods in the evolving landscape of microgrid technology. Despite the advancements in power converter technology, several gaps remain unaddressed in the quest for a truly universal converter: Redundancy Reduction: Existing universal converter designs often involve multiple switches and complex circuitry, leading to redundancy and inefficiency. There is a need for a design that minimizes the number of switches while maintaining versatility and performance. Versatile Operation: Many converters are optimized for specific applications, either AC or DC, but not both. A universal converter that can seamlessly transition between AC and DC inputs and outputs is still lacking. Advanced Control Integration: While advanced control strategies like ADP and ANN have been explored, their integration into a universal converter design remains limited. A comprehensive approach that leverages these techniques to enhance performance across various modes of operation is needed. Experimental Validation: Theoretical designs and simulations often lack experimental validation, which is crucial for assessing real-world performance and reliability. The primary innovation is the design of a universal converter that uses identical side terminals and switches for both chopper and inverter configurations, reducing component redundancy and enhancing operational versatility. This approach reduces component redundancy and complexity, leading to a more efficient and streamlined system. It also minimizes the number of switches needed, which helps in maintaining high efficiency while meeting diverse load requirements. The converter is designed to efficiently handle both low-power battery and single-phase AC supply.Key advantages include reduced component redundancy, increased efficiency, operational flexibility, and the ability to seamlessly transition between different power sources such as battery and AC supply. There is a need for experimental studies that demonstrate the practical feasibility of proposed universal converters. Problem Identification, based on the identified research gaps, the specific problems addressed by this paper are: Redundant Switches in Converter Design: Traditional converter designs involve multiple switches to handle different operational modes, resulting in redundancy and increased complexity. This paper aims to reduce the number of switches required by using identical switches for both chopper and inverter configurations. Limited Versatility: Current converters often lack the ability to efficiently handle both AC and DC inputs and outputs. This paper proposes a universal converter capable of versatile operation, accommodating various power sources and load requirements. Control Complexity: The integration of advanced control strategies is essential for optimizing converter performance. This paper seeks to incorporate approximate dynamic programming and artificial neural networks to enhance the operational efficiency and adaptability of the proposed converter. Lack of Experimental Evidence: Many proposed converter designs remain theoretical or simulation-based, with limited experimental validation. This paper presents a test bench model and experimental results to demonstrate the practical viability of the proposed universal converter. The primary objectives of this paper are: Design a Universal Converter: Develop a universal converter that utilizes identical switches for both chopper and inverter configurations, minimizing redundancy and complexity. Ensure Versatile Operation: Ensure the proposed converter can efficiently handle both AC and DC inputs and outputs, meeting diverse load requirements. Integrate Advanced Control Strategies: Incorporate approximate dynamic programming and artificial neural networks into the converter design to optimize performance across various modes of operation. Experimental Validation: Construct a test bench model of the proposed converter and conduct experimental tests to validate its performance and operational capabilities in real-world scenarios. Identify Applications and Advantages: Highlight the potential applications and main advantages of the proposed universal converter, demonstrating its practical utility and benefits in various electrical systems. In conclusion, this paper aims to address the existing challenges in power converter design by presenting a novel universal converter that combines efficiency, versatility, and advanced control strategies. Through comprehensive analysis and experimental validation, the proposed converter is shown to be a promising solution for modern electrical systems requiring flexible and efficient power conversion.

Result demonstration is the proof of system validation, with different modes of operations in different intervals. Applications of the converter and future scope is concluded in the last section. Renewable and sustainable energy constantly demanding separate and suitable converter for different applications. Because of aforementioned conversion technique is provide an alternate source to avoid pollution, greenhouse gases and global warming, and conversion demanding efficiency enhancement. Many years are of fossil fuel usage with many conversion devices used and reviewed by researchers but still9,10, efficiency enhancement is a continuous and constant hunt. Modern trend speaks about DC micro grid11,12, AC voltage can easily changeably use static AC machine, but DC voltage changing process is challenging task. Effective conversion of electrical energy-based distribution system needed13. Main advantages of DC high voltage system are dominating AC voltage systems, but AC voltage-based transmission and distribution systems also having advantages14,15. So, both are important. DC voltage-based system paying more attention in future due to power electronics emerging technologies16. Using power electronics DC-DC power transformer realisation is possible in many ways. But cost of realisation is the challenge17,18. Low voltage DC distributed system may be in reality very soon19,20. Level of 320 V DC is most economical and technical which is suitable in many applications21,22. Some other early-stage research shows the DC level voltage more than 320 V in the range of 360 V is the standard level in future. During DC-DC power transformer realisation, number of conversion stages and number of semi-conductors are the key factors to decide efficiency23,24. Simulation level design and circuit construction is helpful to integrate renewable energy with energy storage elements in real time using conversion techniques25,26. Due to a greater number of input and outputs this converter suitable for single phase or multi-phase applications, and also suitable for domestic and commercial purpose27,28. Existing conversion block diagram are depicted in Fig. 1a to Fig. 1b. proposed converter block diagram is given in Fig. 2. Aforementioned converters are working unidirectional/bidirectional and single stage/multi-stage operations, but the proposed converter can work bidirectionally and single stage operation which is shown in Fig. 3a to c. So, its highly suitable for DC and AC microgrid applications. Section II deals about mathematical analysis and modes of operation. Section III deals control technique of the conversion system. Simulation or software level implementation of proposed idea is given in section IV. Comparison and control technique is deals in section V. Section VI is about ANN approach. Section VII is about Training ANN to realize approximate dynamic Programming based control and hardware level implementation of proto-type model. Section VIII concluded with result analysis, possible other applications and future scope.

Existing converter.

Proposed converter.

Existing and proposed topology.

The motivation behind the proposed generic photovoltaic (PV)-based converter is illustrated in Fig. 3. The current systems for converting solar energy into electrical power involve distinct processes for DC-DC and DC-AC conversions, as shown in Fig. 3a. The existing PV string inverter is dedicated to DC-AC conversion, while the DC-DC converter is used specifically for DC-DC operations with the grid. In the market, competition is increasingly centered around DC-DC converters that integrate with DC microgrids29. The traditional approach to PV energy conversion involves using separate converters for different functions. The PV string inverter handles the conversion of direct current (DC) generated by solar panels into alternating current (AC) for grid integration or household use. On the other hand, a separate DC-DC converter is employed to manage the DC power, typically for storage or direct use in DC-powered devices or systems. This separation of functions into distinct converters comes with several limitations. Firstly, it increases the overall system complexity, requiring more components, which in turn raises costs and potential points of failure. Secondly, the need for multiple converters means that the system is less flexible and harder to adapt to varying power demands and supply conditions. Each converter has to be precisely matched to its specific role, limiting the system's ability to handle different types of loads or integrate new energy sources easily. The market for PV systems is highly competitive, with manufacturers striving to develop more efficient and versatile converters. The trend is moving towards integrating DC microgrids, which necessitates advanced DC-DC converters capable of efficiently managing power within these grids. DC microgrids offer numerous benefits, including reduced energy losses, improved reliability, and easier integration of renewable energy sources30. However, they also require sophisticated power management solutions to handle the variable nature of renewable energy and the diverse needs of consumers. Figure 3b illustrates an alternative approach proposed in this paper: a generic converter capable of both DC-DC and DC-AC operations.

This proposed solution aims to address the limitations of existing systems by offering a more flexible and comprehensive power conversion strategy. The idea is to develop a single converter that can seamlessly switch between different modes of operation, depending on the specific needs of the consumer and the available energy sources. This generic converter design is independent and adaptable, making it suitable for a wide range of applications, including domestic consumers and renewable energy systems. By integrating both DC-DC and DC-AC conversion capabilities into a single unit, the proposed converter simplifies the overall system architecture, reducing costs and improving reliability. It also offers greater flexibility in managing power flows, making it easier to integrate additional renewable energy sources, such as wind or additional solar panels, into the system. For domestic consumers, the proposed generic converter provides several significant benefits. It allows for more efficient use of solar energy by enabling direct DC power usage for DC-powered devices, reducing the losses associated with multiple conversion stages. Additionally, the ability to convert DC to AC means that the system can easily supply power to conventional household appliances and integrate with the existing AC grid. This flexibility ensures that consumers can maximize their use of available solar energy, regardless of their specific power needs or the configuration of their home electrical system. The proposed converter also facilitates the integration of renewable energy sources. Traditional PV systems can be expanded to include other renewable sources, such as wind or hydroelectric power, without the need for additional, specialized converters. The generic converter's ability to handle both DC and AC power means that it can manage the variable outputs of these different energy sources, ensuring stable and reliable power supply. This integration capability is crucial for developing more sustainable and resilient energy systems that can adapt to changing energy landscapes and consumer demands. Figure 3 provides a simplified structure of the generic PV converter, complete with filters and protective devices. These components are essential for ensuring the converter's safe and efficient operation. Filters help to smooth out any fluctuations in the power supply, ensuring a consistent and reliable output. Protective devices safeguard the system against potential faults or overloads, enhancing the overall reliability and lifespan of the converter. The generic solution proposed in this paper aims to provide a universal power conversion mechanism between DC supply and AC/DC microgrids. Typically, power conversion stages may involve isolated high-frequency stages to ensure efficient and stable operation. The proposed idea generalizes this approach, making it applicable to a wide range of power conversion scenarios. This universality is a key advantage, as it allows the converter to be used in various settings and applications, from small-scale residential systems to larger commercial or industrial installations. The primary goal of the proposed work is to meet the growing demands for more versatile and efficient power converters. As the energy landscape evolves, there is an increasing need for semiconductor solutions capable of handling both AC and DC operations with greater flexibility. The proposed generic converter addresses this need by offering a comprehensive solution that combines efficiency, adaptability, and simplicity. In summary, the motivation for developing the proposed generic PV-based converter is rooted in the need to overcome the limitations of existing power conversion systems. By offering a flexible and adaptable solution that integrates both DC-DC and DC-AC conversion capabilities, the proposed converter simplifies system architecture, reduces costs, and enhances reliability. It also provides significant benefits for domestic consumers and facilitates the integration of renewable energy sources. With its universal power conversion approach, the proposed converter is well-positioned to meet the demands of modern energy systems and contribute to the development of more sustainable and resilient power infrastructures. By using identical switches for both chopper and inverter configurations, the converter minimizes the number of required switches, reducing complexity and component count. This approach enhances efficiency by lowering power losses and allows the converter to operate effectively in multiple modes, accommodating different power sources and load requirements. Designing a filter, especially in the context of power electronics, involves several key considerations based on the application requirements, desired performance, and system constraints. Here’s a general overview of the process to design a filter and how the specifications are determined: Purpose of the Filter: Determine the primary function of the filter—whether it’s for reducing electromagnetic interference (EMI), smoothing the output in a power supply, or filtering out specific frequencies. Type of Filter: Decide whether a low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, or band-stop filter is needed. In power electronics, low-pass filters are commonly used to smooth out high-frequency noise and ripple from DC outputs. Frequency Requirements: The cutoff frequency is a critical parameter, determining the point where the filter starts to attenuate the input signal. This is typically based on the switching frequency of the converter or the frequency of the noise you want to eliminate. Calculation: The cutoff frequency is determined based on the expected noise frequencies or harmonics that need to be attenuated. For instance, if the switching frequency of a DC-DC converter is 100 kHz, a low-pass filter might be designed with a cutoff frequency slightly below this value to attenuate the high-frequency ripple.

The possible designs for conventional and proposed photovoltaic (PV) systems are illustrated in Fig. 4. The existing conventional design includes an intermediate boost converter coupled with a voltage source inverter, enabling integration with an AC grid, as depicted in Fig. 4a. This design is commonly used in PV systems to facilitate DC-AC conversion, making it suitable for grid-tied applications31,32. Figure 4b offers a comprehensive view of an existing single-phase PV inverter that supports both DC-DC and DC-AC operations. This design is prevalent in many PV installations due to its ability to handle various power conversion needs. However, more complex solutions, such as high step-up DC-AC conversion and DC-AC conversion with a common ground, are also emerging. These solutions address specific requirements but come with inherent disadvantages such as a limited power range and reduced efficiency, often stemming from the inversion mode33,34. In some conventional designs, to achieve a DC output, the Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) S2 must be active, while transistors S3 and S4 operate synchronously in a step-down mode. This approach, while effective in certain scenarios, can be complex and inefficient due to the need for precise control and the potential for increased switching losses. A new topology for a proposed generic PV converter is introduced, which, like the conventional designs, converts DC input to AC output for bidirectional operation. This innovative design is illustrated in Fig. 4c, showing a generic single-phase buck-boost converter with unfolding topology capable of bidirectional operation. This topology is versatile, allowing for both DC-DC and DC-AC operations while addressing issues of redundancy and control strategy complexity. One of the primary advantages of the proposed converter design is its minimal use of semiconductor switches. By utilizing fewer switches, the design aims to reduce switching losses significantly. Additionally, the absence of high-frequency components mitigates problems associated with leakage current, enhancing overall efficiency and reliability. This single-stage solution is generic and capable of regulating a wide input range without the need for a DC link capacitor. The design can be adapted using various topologies based on application requirements, providing a flexible and non-redundant solution for PV power conversion. The proposed generic PV converter design presents several significant advantages over conventional systems: By minimizing the number of semiconductor switches and high-frequency components, the design simplifies the overall system architecture. This reduction in complexity not only lowers the potential for faults and failures but also makes the system easier to control and maintain. Enhanced Efficiency: The innovative use of fewer switches and the elimination of high-frequency components lead to reduced switching losses and lower leakage currents. These improvements result in higher overall efficiency, making the system more cost-effective and sustainable in the long run. Bidirectional Operation: The ability to operate bidirectionally is a key feature of the proposed design. This capability allows the converter to handle both DC-DC and DC-AC conversions seamlessly, making it versatile for various applications, including energy storage systems and grid-tied PV installations. Wide Input Range Regulation: The proposed converter can regulate a wide range of input voltages without requiring a DC link capacitor. This flexibility ensures that the system can adapt to different power sources and load conditions, enhancing its applicability in diverse scenarios. Application-Based Flexibility: The design can be constructed using different topologies depending on the specific application requirements. This adaptability ensures that the converter can be tailored to meet the needs of various use cases without redundancy, providing a more efficient and effective solution.

Conversion systems.

Technical Considerations, MOSFET Configuration: In the proposed design, the MOSFETs are configured to optimize efficiency and performance. For instance, when achieving a DC output, specific MOSFETs must be active while others operate synchronously in a step-down mode. This precise control is crucial for maintaining high efficiency and reliability. Unfolding Topology: The use of an unfolding topology in the proposed design allows for effective bidirectional operation. This topology supports both buck and boost operations, enabling the converter to handle varying input and output voltage levels while maintaining efficient power conversion. Control Strategy: The proposed design employs a sophisticated control strategy to manage the operation of the converter. This strategy ensures that the converter can seamlessly transition between different modes of operation, maintaining optimal performance across a range of conditions. Minimizing Switching Losses: By designing the converter with a smaller number of switches, the proposed system significantly reduces switching losses. This reduction is achieved through careful selection and configuration of the switches, as well as by optimizing the control strategy to minimize unnecessary switching events. Leakage Current Mitigation: The absence of high-frequency components in the proposed design helps to reduce leakage currents, which can negatively impact system efficiency and reliability. By addressing this issue, the proposed converter enhances overall performance and longevity. The proposed generic PV converter has several practical implications for the deployment of PV systems: Cost Reduction: The simplified design with fewer components leads to lower manufacturing and maintenance costs. This cost reduction makes PV systems more accessible and affordable for a broader range of consumers, promoting the adoption of renewable energy. Ease of Installation and Maintenance: The reduced complexity of the proposed design simplifies installation and maintenance processes. This ease of use is particularly beneficial for residential and small-scale commercial applications, where technical expertise may be limited. Scalability: The flexibility of the proposed design allows it to be easily scaled to different sizes and capacities. This scalability is crucial for meeting the varying energy needs of different users, from small households to large industrial facilities. Integration with Renewable Energy Sources: The ability to handle both DC and AC power makes the proposed converter ideal for integrating multiple renewable energy sources. This integration capability supports the development of more resilient and sustainable energy systems that can adapt to changing energy landscapes. Regulatory Compliance: The proposed design can be adapted to meet different regulatory standards and requirements, ensuring compliance with local and international guidelines. This adaptability enhances the potential for widespread adoption and deployment. Future Prospects, the development of the proposed generic PV converter represents a significant advancement in the field of power conversion. Future research and development efforts can focus on further optimizing the design, exploring new topologies, and enhancing control strategies to achieve even higher levels of efficiency and performance. Advanced Materials: The use of advanced semiconductor materials, such as silicon carbide (SiC) or gallium nitride (GaN), can further improve the efficiency and performance of the proposed converter. These materials offer superior electrical properties, enabling higher power densities and faster switching speeds. Smart Grid Integration: The proposed converter can be integrated with smart grid technologies to enhance grid stability and reliability. Advanced communication and control systems can be employed to enable real-time monitoring and management of power flows, supporting more efficient and resilient energy systems. Hybrid Systems: The proposed converter can be used in hybrid energy systems that combine multiple renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, and hydro. These hybrid systems can provide more stable and reliable power supplies, reducing dependence on any single energy source. Energy Storage: The bidirectional capability of the proposed converter makes it ideal for use in energy storage systems. By efficiently managing the charge and discharge cycles of batteries, the proposed design can support more effective and reliable energy storage solutions. Customization and Modularity: The proposed design can be customized and modularized to meet specific application requirements. This customization and modularity enable the development of tailored solutions that address the unique needs of different users and applications. In conclusion, the proposed generic PV converter offers a highly efficient, flexible, and cost-effective solution for power conversion in PV systems. By addressing the limitations of conventional designs and leveraging advanced topologies and control strategies, the proposed design enhances the efficiency and reliability of PV power systems. Its ability to handle both DC-DC and DC-AC conversions, coupled with its reduced complexity and improved performance, makes it a promising solution for the future of renewable energy. The proposed converter represents a significant step forward in the development of sustainable and resilient energy systems, supporting the transition to a cleaner and more sustainable energy future. The proposed converter addresses these challenges by using identical switches for multiple configurations, thereby reducing the number of components required. This design approach minimizes redundancy, simplifies the circuitry, and enhances efficiency without compromising versatility or performance. The converter's design allows it to handle both AC and DC inputs and outputs by using the same terminals and switches for different configurations. This versatility means it can be used in a wide range of applications, from microgrids to renewable energy systems and electric vehicles, offering flexibility and efficiency in diverse load requirements and power sources. The primary applications include microgrids, electric vehicles, and renewable energy systems. The key advantages are reduced complexity, increased efficiency, and broad applicability. The converter's design ensures it can meet diverse load requirements with minimal component redundancy and high operational versatility.

Converter operation cannot be validated without protective devices and filters in any applications. Filter selection and proper protections are discussed in this section. Power quality and safety are the aim in both DC-DC and DC-AC operation. Protection based issues are firstly discussed, with standardized solution in single phase. Fuse, circuit breaker and varistor are the components in the over voltage protection, Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI) also required to eliminate, in case of sudden fault circuit breakers break the circuit and disconnect load on zero crossing point, which is main mechanism of fault detection and isolation. Fault clearing time of AC system is 80 ms, and target time of DC system is 2.5 ms. structure of protection circuit between converter and DC grid is almost same. Main issues related to DC fault current; it is several times more than normal current. In DC microgrid line impedance is very low, so deviation in the fault current is high. AC protection technique cannot be completely transferred to DC. Because of communication speed, band widths are high and functionalities of breaker and relay coordination. These types systems required features such as more reliability, more life time and low conduction losses. Grounding issues are avoided using increasing impedance and galvanic isolation. Leakage current is another important factor when inter connecting with ground. In DC system common ground wire with ground eliminates leakage current.

Filter selection is another task, because of maintain output current quality. From grid side inductor is highly preferable because of controllability in the current (grid current). LC filter is commonly preferred while preferring LC grid side impedance are internal present. LC filter is as shown in Fig. 5a. CLC filter is another choice, where first capacitor C along with inductor L are main filtering components and for suppression second capacitor is used. CLC filter is as shown in Fig. 5b. Figure 5c represents simplified structure of LC filter. If any breakage or disconnection in the DC grid side controller has to short output side of the converter to minimize voltage spike.

Filter process.

Transient ideal wave form is as shown in in Fig. 5d, it will be related to oscillation. This analysis process described by the equivalent circuit 4c. the differential equation for the analysis is given in Eq. (1a and 1b). Capacitor voltage initial condition is given in 2.

where VD and iD is grid side DC voltage and current at disconnected moment. Proof of straight after breaking or disconnection because of accumulation of energy and voltage across capacitor starting to increase. Assume all energy accumulated in the inductor is flowing to capacitor. Inductor and change in voltage design equations are given in Eqs. (3) to (5)

Other passive components of the converter filter part are calculated using classical approach. Ripple current is main parameter to be reduced. Protection circuit (circuit breaker) and filter fulfil the grid protection and power quality.

Proposed conversion system is compared with existing PV conversion system. Proposed single stage dual leg DC-DC/AC converter is used in all analysis. Comparisons is in the terms of number of passive components, number of switches, number of sensors and protective devices. Table 1 indicates parameters of PV converter in one side and typical market values are on other side with 230 V and 400 V. All outputs are taken from same values of inputs voltage range and high frequency transistor MOSFET. Maximum voltage stress is from input maximum voltage. Efficiency analysis from different modes is discussed in the experimental section. Table 2 indicates comparison.

Switching frequency is selected based on standard Electromagnetic compatibility in the range of 100 kHz as minimum frequency. Commercial PV converter switching frequency is recommended as 50 kHz IGBT also suitable for commercial application, if the power rating is low IGBT is not economical choice.

AC voltage is slightly maximum than DC voltage. Unfolding circuit in the case generic conversion given slightly more DC voltage than normal cases. For high frequency mitigation, passive components capacitor was selected. Block diagram defines capacitor reference voltage which given to pulse width modulation (PWM). PWM block explains high switching operation and comparator explains operation of unfolding circuit. Grid voltage and capacitor voltage phase shift defines phase and amplitude of current in grid. So active or reactive power will DC-AC converter, this idea will increase robustness and dynamic response of control system. Figure 6 shows block diagram of ANN.

Control structure based on ADP-ANN.

Approximate Dynamic Programming (ADP) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are used to optimize the converter's control strategies. ADP helps in making near-optimal decisions in real-time, while ANN adapts to various operating conditions and input variations, ensuring precise and efficient control, which enhances the converter's overall performance and adaptability35. Minimizing the number of switches reduces the complexity, cost, and potential points of failure in the converter design. It also decreases power losses, leading to higher efficiency. Simplified designs are easier to implement and maintain, making the converter more reliable and cost-effective for diverse applications. The test bench model, rated at 3000W, demonstrates the converter's efficacy in all five operational modes with AC/DC inputs. Although the exact modes are not detailed in the provided text, they typically involve various configurations for AC-DC, DC-AC, and DC-DC conversions.

ANN based state space model is developed for the proposed converter which is obtained from the equivalent model and the equation is given in Eq. (6)

Inductor current and output voltage are the system states. In ANN controller diode voltage is proportional to the output voltage. ANN digital controller needed a discrete model, A and B are system matrices and sampling period Ts. Integer time step is denoted by the letter k and the equation is given in (7)

ADP-ANN are used to optimize the converter's performance by providing optimal control and adaptability to varying load demands and input conditions, ensuring robust and efficient operation. Control structure of ANN is given in Fig. 6 and 7 shows ADP- ANN model and it’s a feed forward network. It consists of input, hidden and output layers. Two inputs are from input layers, error and error integral term is defined in Eq. (8)

where proposed converter reference input voltage is V0*(k), Gain is the sum of the first two inputs, which is processed by tangent activation hyperbolic function. Gain value is chosen as 4 for both analysis and experiment. The key innovative aspects include the use of identical side terminals and switches for both chopper and inverter configurations, reducing component redundancy and enhancing operational versatility. Additionally, the integration of Approximate Dynamic Programming (ADP) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) optimizes the converter's performance across various operational modes. First layer feed input to second or hidden layers contains six nodes. Third layer gives VA*(k), the ANN final output. Gain is multiplied with output KPWM. Which is pulse width modulation gain to attain control final action, the diode voltage from proposed converter is given in Eq. (9).

ANN structure.

Weight vector of overall network is given as \(\overrightarrow{\omega }\) and Whole ANN is denoted by A (.). Integral error signal and error signal are the circuit input. ANN is enabled by the control (Proportional-Integral (PI)) gain characteristics. Conventional PI controller has two gains, but ANN besides to PI then gain may be in hundreds. Feedback signal of proposed network is input to the ANN, so it acts like a recurrent neural network. The property of recurrent neural network is properly and trains accurately in ANN, which will be allow ANN to be able to achieve the gain predictive control.

Control stage at real time, is possible when output voltage of the controller, more than the constraints of duty cycle, or inductor current is more than the limitations of inductor current. Constraint of the duty-cycle is maximum; ANN controller developed a locking mechanism. Output voltage of the controller is beyond the pulse width modulation saturation limit, this mechanism can able to detect that, so it can block error signal to ANN controller and maintain output voltage as required value. Constraints due to maximum inductor current at PI block, reference voltage are adjusted. PI block initiate actual inductor current over the peak current constraints and when current is reduced to two percent below the maximum constraints it stops.

Approximate dynamic Programming principle is based on Bellman’s optimality, and this tool is useful for optimization to solve problems. Approximate dynamic Programming based control of the proposed converter state space model and performance indexed cost is given in Eq. (10). Where N is the length of the trajectory and α is the fractional number.

The main aim of the Approximate dynamic Programming based control for proposed converter is to determine sequence of action controls k = 1, 2,…,N. cost of the ADP is reduced. Comparatively cost function of the ADP based control is less than the conventional control. Approximate dynamic Programming based control is attaining through ANN is trained to reduce ADP cost function. Some algorithms are used to train Artificial Neural Network and Jocobian matrix need by LM algorithm36 is manipulated through FATT algorithm37. The equation of algorithm is in matrix form is given in Eq. (11) and (12)

Jocobian matrix J \(\overrightarrow{\omega }\) is (13) (14) and (15)

Proposed converter is combined with ANN which is equivalent to recurrent network. Also, ANN is trained Offline, i.e., there is no further training during real time stage. Test bench model components specifications is given in Table 3.

The experimental setup for comparing the proposed solution modes is depicted in Fig. 8. Voltage and current probes were employed to measure the parameters, while a digital storage oscilloscope was utilized to capture the output waveforms. Various solar parameters and operating points were assessed with the support of a PV emulator. Efficiency measurements were carried out using a power analyzer. To evaluate input and output performance, a DC source and electronic loads were employed. The entire system was overseen by a DsPIC controller, guided by a control algorithm. The experimental verification was conducted on multiple fronts, including an assessment of circuit operation in different modes as the first aspect. The second aspect involved the evaluation of efficiency. The control structure and operational modes are detailed in Fig. 9, with Fig. 9(a) illustrating the DC-AC mode, Fig. 9(b) depicting the control approach during mode transitions, and Fig. 9(c) showcasing the AC-DC mode.

Comparison of modes.

(a) Inverter mode with filter. (b) inverter mode dynamic output. (c) Inverter mode with step load changes. (d) Inverter mode with filter. (e) Inverter mode with stepped dynamic outputs. (f) inverter mode combined outputs.

Figure 9 depicts operational evaluations of the proposed system, for both standalone and grid-connected loads. Figure 9(a) displays the output's a constant state operation, demonstrating the converter's functionality under static settings as well as the effectiveness of the capacitive and inductive filters. Figure 9(b) depicts the DC-AC form including filters with an unstable output, highlighting a 50% reduction in active components and the addition of reactive parts. To measure variations in phase shift, capacitors and inductors are linked in parallel and series. Figure 9(c) exhibits the DC-AC mode with filters and varying output loads. Here, the output is generated under standalone conditions, with the grid disconnected from the circuit. Various electronic load values are applied to produce the waveforms.

Notably, the waveform from the rectifier with a resistive load and an electrolytic capacitor is more dynamic compared to other waveforms. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) ranges from 3.5% with the filter to 30–40% without it. Figure 9(d) illustrates the DC-AC conversion, which includes filters and continuously changing dynamic outputs. It shows a static output from the load as well as from the grid supply, all measured using the same scope. In grid-tied mode (AC), half of the load is applied first, followed by the full load, and the results are captured accordingly.

Figure 9(e) shows the DC-AC conversion with filters, which includes both stepped variable and stable outputs. The output has a Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) of 4%, and power quality improves as load increases. The use of non-linear components in the converter produces little distortion. Figure 9(f) illustrates a mixture of outputs in a single scope, showcasing the converter's exceptional adaptability to fluctuating voltages and varying loads, making it ideal for modern applications. A multi-wire measurement methodology was employed in this work to assess power up to 3000 W. Both operating modes reached a peak efficiency of 97.4%, attributable to the reduced number of switches. Figure 10 demonstrates a strong correlation between efficiency and consistent input current and voltage.

efficiency versus load case (i) 9A case (ii) 2A.

The brown and purple lines in our analysis represent the AC output conversion, whereas the green and blue lines represent the DC output conversion. This color coding illustrates the system's robust capability to manage a diverse range of loads effectively. These lines serve as a visual representation of the system's performance across different operational modes, providing a clear indication of its adaptability and efficiency. In Case-I, we examine the system's performance under a load with a 9A current. Another scenario involves a lower current of 2A. From these cases, it becomes evident that the system's efficiency decreases as the current value drops. This decline in efficiency can be attributed to several factors. Primarily, lower current values tend to increase the voltage drop across the components, leading to higher relative losses. Additionally, higher currents typically result in greater conduction losses, which further contribute to the reduction in efficiency. The effectiveness of the proposed converter was validated through a test bench model rated at 3000W. The experimental results confirmed the converter's ability to handle AC/DC inputs across all five operational modes, demonstrating its robustness and adaptability. Potential applications include microgrids, electric vehicles, and renewable energy systems. The converter is suitable for these applications due to its efficiency, versatility, reduced complexity, and the ability to manage power conversion in diverse contexts. Future work could explore further optimization and scaling of the converter for larger systems, enhancing its applicability and impact in the energy sector. Despite these challenges, the system demonstrates remarkable stability in its peak efficiency curve when operating in inverter mode during standard power operations. This consistency indicates that the inverter mode can maintain high efficiency even under varying load conditions, which is crucial for applications requiring reliable and efficient power conversion. Furthermore, there is no observed loss of efficiency in chopper mode, which underscores the system's robust design and operational efficiency. An interesting observation is that both AC and DC output modes exhibit higher efficiency levels when the load is approximately 80% of the system's capacity. This optimal loading condition appears to be a sweet spot for the system, where it can operate most efficiently. The efficiency difference between the AC and DC modes is marginal, at merely one percent. This minimal variance highlights the system's balanced performance across different modes, making it highly versatile for various applications. Figure 11 offers a detailed illustration of the loss distribution associated with different input voltages and nominal output power levels. This analysis includes losses from switching components as well as passive components such as inductors and capacitors. Understanding these loss distributions is crucial for identifying areas where efficiency improvements can be made. The research reveals that the highest efficiency, which peaks at 97.4%, is achieved with a 400 V DC input. This high efficiency can be attributed to the low losses associated with the switches, which are designed to operate optimally under these conditions. The efficiency of approximately 50% of the components during the DC-DC mode plays a significant role in minimizing the overall losses. This high component efficiency ensures that the system can effectively convert power with minimal waste, contributing to its overall performance. In the DC-DC mode, the system's efficiency remains exceptionally high. This mode is particularly important for applications that require direct DC power conversion, such as battery charging or DC-powered devices. The low switch losses in this mode are a result of the system's optimized design, which includes high-quality components and advanced control strategies. By maintaining low losses, the system ensures that more of the input power is converted to useful output power, enhancing its overall efficiency. While the efficiency does experience a slight reduction when operating in the DC-AC mode, it is essential to recognize that this mode remains a viable option for commercial applications. The DC-AC mode is crucial for grid-tied applications and systems that require alternating current for end-use devices. The slight efficiency drop in this mode is a common trade-off due to the complexities involved in converting DC power to AC power. The research underscores the importance of considering both DC-DC and DC-AC modes when designing power conversion systems for commercial use. The ability to maintain high efficiency across both modes ensures that the system can adapt to different operational requirements without significant performance losses. This adaptability is particularly valuable in commercial settings, where power demands can vary widely, and efficiency is a critical factor for cost savings and environmental impact. The findings highlight the need for continuous optimization of both the design and components used in power conversion systems. By focusing on high-efficiency components and minimizing losses through advanced design techniques, it is possible to achieve superior performance. This approach involves selecting components that offer low resistance and high efficiency, as well as implementing control strategies that optimize the switching operations to reduce losses. Future research can build on these findings by exploring new materials and technologies that can further enhance the efficiency of power conversion systems. For instance, the use of advanced semiconductor materials like silicon carbide (SiC) or gallium nitride (GaN) could potentially reduce losses and improve efficiency. Additionally, developing more sophisticated control algorithms can help manage the power conversion process more effectively, ensuring that the system operates at peak efficiency under a wider range of conditions. In conclusion, the system's ability to handle a broad range of loads and maintain high efficiency across different modes of operation makes it a versatile and robust solution for power conversion. The analysis of loss distribution and efficiency across various input conditions provides valuable insights into the system's performance and areas for improvement. With peak efficiencies reaching 97.4% at optimal input voltages, the system demonstrates exceptional performance in both DC/DC and DC/AC conversion operations. Despite a slight reduction in efficiency in the DC-AC mode, the system remains a viable choice for commercial applications, highlighting its flexibility and adaptability. The research underscores the importance of ongoing optimization and the potential for future advancements to further enhance the efficiency and reliability of power conversion systems.

Distribution of power loss.

The paper introduces a versatile and innovative DC-DC and DC-AC converter tailored for DC/AC microgrid applications, utilizing Approximate Dynamic Programming and Artificial Neural Networks (ADP-ANN). The converter's universal design, which uses the same side terminals and identical switches for both chopper and inverter configurations, sets it apart by reducing redundancy and complexity, leading to a more efficient and streamlined system. By focusing on minimizing the number of switches without compromising performance, this design presents a practical solution for efficient power conversion. This versatility is essential for applications that require smooth transitions between different power sources, such as batteries and single-phase AC supplies. The paper's conceptual example and comparative analysis underscore the converter's adaptability and effectiveness across various operational modes, with experimental validation through a 3000W test bench model confirming its capability to handle AC/DC inputs across all five modes. The integration of ADP-ANN enhances system performance by providing optimal control and adaptability to varying load demands and input conditions, demonstrating the converter's robustness and suitability for a wide range of practical applications. These include microgrids, electric vehicles, and renewable energy systems, where efficient power conversion is crucial. The key advantages of the proposed converter—reduced component redundancy, increased efficiency, and operational flexibility—highlight its potential for diverse applications. The innovative design and proven performance mark a significant advancement in power electronics, positioning the converter as a promising candidate for widespread adoption in modern energy systems. Looking ahead, future work could focus on further optimization and scaling of the converter for larger systems, exploring its integration into more complex and higher-capacity energy networks. Additionally, investigating the converter's performance in real-world scenarios, including its interaction with emerging technologies like smart grids and IoT-enabled energy management systems, could unlock new possibilities. These efforts could enhance the converter's applicability and impact, potentially revolutionizing power management in the energy sector and contributing to the development of more resilient, efficient, and sustainable energy infrastructures.

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Christ Deemed to Be University, Bangalore, India

K. Suresh

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Mohan Babu University (Erstwhile Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College), Tirupati, India

E. Parimalasundar & B. Hemanth Kumar

Department of Electrical Engineering, School of Physics and Electronic Engineering, Hanjiang Normal University, Hubei Shiyan, 442000, People’s Republic of China

Arvind R. Singh

Department of Electrical Engineering, Graphic Era (Deemed to Be University), Dehradun, 248002, India

Mohit Bajaj

Hourani Center for Applied Scientific Research, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman, Jordan

Mohit Bajaj

Graphic Era Hill University, Dehradun, 248002, India

Mohit Bajaj

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering, Sustainable Energy Center of Excellence, Addis Ababa Science and Technology University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Milkias Berhanu Tuka

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Suresh K, Parimalasundar E, Hemanth Kumar B: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Visualization, Investigation, Writing- Original draft preparation. Arvind R. Singh, Mohit Bajaj: Data curation, Validation, Supervision, Resources, Writing—Review & Editing. Milkias Berhanu Tuka: Project administration, Supervision, Resources, Writing—Review & Editing.

Correspondence to Arvind R. Singh, Mohit Bajaj or Milkias Berhanu Tuka.

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Suresh, K., Parimalasundar, E., Kumar, B.H. et al. Design and implementation of a universal converter for microgrid applications using approximate dynamic programming and artificial neural networks. Sci Rep 14, 20899 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-71916-z

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Received: 03 July 2024

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Published: 08 September 2024

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-71916-z

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